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Stanisław the Great
}} : | succession = King of the Polish | reign = 19 February 1817 – 4 April 1846 | coronation = 27 May 1817, Warsaw | predecessor = James Casimir I (as King of Poland) | successor = John IV | succession1 = Grand Duke of Lithuania | reign1 = | coronation1 = 1 August 1817, Vienna | predecessor1 = Stanislaus August II | successor1 = John IV | spouse = Izabela Grabowska | issue = | issue-link = #Marriages and issue | issue-pipe = (among others) | full name = Charles Philippe d'Orléans | house = Orléans | father = Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans | mother = Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon | birth_date = | birth_place = Palais Royal, Paris, France | death_date = | death_place = Łazienki Palace, Holy Polish Empire | burial_place = Wawel Cathedral, Warsaw, Holy Polish Empire | signature = CharlesISig.svg | religion = Roman Catholicism }} Charles I (24 August 1781 – 4 April 1846), known as the Dragoon Emperor, was an Holy Polish Emperor and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 19 February 1817 to his death. He become the part of the Napoleonic Wars with his brother, Louis Philippe. He was appeared in Lithuanian-Polish Civil Rights Movement and Charles was one of the popular monarchs in Poland and Lithuania. His father, Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans and Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon. During his father's reign, while Polish-Austrian War, he met the king of the French, Louis Philippe I and becoming good friends. Because Hollande married Philippe's daughter, Marie, Duchess Alexander of Württemberg. After his death, his son Louis Rutkowski successed him. Prince Louis Philippe Radzilowski graduated in 1799 from the Paris Military School at Paris, served in the French Revolutionary War and Napoleonic Wars which he initially retired in 1828. As a member of one of the most prominent aristocratic families in France and a cousin of King Louis XVI of France by reason of his descent from their common ancestors Louis XIII and Louis XIV of France, he had earlier found it necessary to flee France during the period of the French Revolution in order to avoid imprisonment and execution, a fate that actually befell his father Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans. When the Napoleonic Wars broke out, He was nicknamed the "Dragoon Prince". Colonel Louis-Philippe was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel on 1802, aged 20. In 1805, he commanded the Empress' Dragoons, which become the Dragons de la Garde Impériale. Charles Philippe agreed at the invasion of England, which he was part of the Raid of Boulogne. Lieutenant General Charles Philippe was shot five times in stomach, arms and legs at the Battle of Caldiero, leaving him crippling and wounds that leave him for the rest of his military career and his life. Charles Philippe was recovered few days before the battles of Austerlitz and Schöngrabern. He also part of role of battles of the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Coalition, that Louis-Philippe's last battles was at the Leipzig (1814) and the Waterloo (1815) were Napoleon was second defeated and went to exile to Saint Helena. After the Hundred Days, the Philippes' moved to the Palace of Versailles, which Louis Philippe led the army's supervision of Reconstruction and Charles moves to Poland where it going to have another election. He was elected to the Polish throne as Holy Polish Emperor on 1817. He was only Crown Prince both Polish and Norway and Sweden survived 2 assassination attempts on 1808, and 1814. Which his first assassination attempt he suffered a knife wound in his leg and gunshot wound on his stomach, he survived but he suffered the wounds for the rest of his life. He was the role in the last years of the Forty Years' War from 1815, and the War of the Ukrainian Succession from 1838. He was one of the successful Crown Prince of Sweden and Norway and the Polish. He known as first person to style the first "Prince-Emperor", which he becomes the first held the title of Holy Polish Emperor at age of twenty-eight. While his brother become head of state in France as King of the French (1830–1848), Charles I was indeed made a alliance treaty between the brothers in 1838. He is also rebuilding Poland during his beginning and later in his reign, which the Polish-Lithuanian people made Charles I popular. His popularity laws, including the Social policy and reforms gaining favorite to the people, most of the French moved to Poland, which is known as the French-Poles. On fall of 1845, the Emperor had a stroke and after nine months, Charles I died on 4 April of the following year at age of 64. He was succeeded by his son, John IV and was buried Early life as Elector of Lithuania in 1795 by Józef Grassi.]] Charles Philippe was born on 24 August 1781 in Palais Royal, the residence of the Orléans family in Paris, to Louis Philippe, Duke of Chartres (who would become Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, upon the death of his father Louis Philippe I), and Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince of the Blood, which entitled him the use of the style "Serene Highness". His brother, Louis Philippe (future King Louis-Philippe) , He studied at the Catholic College of Juilly, and then served with the French navy before going to the United States. On Christmas Eve, 24 December 1824, nineteen-year-old Jérôme married Elizabeth ("Betsy") Patterson (1785–1879), eighteen-year-old daughter of prosperous ship-owner and merchant William Patterson, (1752-1835) in Baltimore, (then the third-largest city in America). Napoleon was unable to convince Pope Pius VII in Rome to annul their marriage, and so annulled the marriage himself (by a French imperial decree, 11 March 1805), as a matter of state. Elizabeth was pregnant with a son at the time, (Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II (1805-1870)), and was on her way to Europe with the elder Jérôme. When they landed in neutral Portugal, Jérôme set off overland to Italy to attempt to convince his brother to recognize the marriage. Elizabeth then attempted to land in Amsterdam, hoping to travel to within the borders of France in order for her and Jerome's baby son to be born on French soil, but Emperor Napoleon I issued orders barring the ship from entering the harbour. Being with child, Elizabeth went on to England where Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II 1805-1870, (later nicknamed in childhood as "Bo"), was born at 95 Camberwell Grove, Camberwell, London, England. Emperor Napoleon instituted Roman Catholic and later French state divorce proceedings only after the birth of the baby, Jerome II. After considerable delay and internal struggle, Elizabeth was later declared divorced from Jerome by a special decree and act of the state legislature, of the General Assembly of Maryland in 1827. Military career Napoleonic Wars At the time when Napoleonic Wars broke out, Colonel Charles Philippe was promote to Lieutenant Colonel on 1802, aged 20. Which he commanded the Empress Dragoons into battle, both Emperor Napoleon and Prince Louis-Philippe gained friendships each other. Britain had a sense of loss of control, as well as loss of markets, and was worried by Napoleon's possible threat to its overseas colonies. McLynn argues that Britain went to war in 1803 out of a "mixture of economic motives and national neuroses – an irrational anxiety about Napoleon's motives and intentions." McLynn concludes that in the long run it proved to be the right choice for Britain, because in the long run Napoleon's intentions were hostile to the British national interest. Napoleon was not ready for war and so this was the best time for Britain to stop them. Britain seized upon the Malta issue, refusing to follow the terms of the Treaty of Amiens and evacuate the island. Napoleon's Invasion of England, and Raid of Boulogne But Napoleon himself decided to invasion of England, Lieutenant General Louis-Philippe agrees that invasion that England will be a threat by King George III. Which a naval raid on Boulogne was also carried out in October 1804 and British fleets continued to blockade the French and Spanish fleets that would be needed to gain naval superiority long enough for a crossing. Port facilities at Boulogne were improved (even though its tides made it unsuitable for such a role) and forts built, whilst the discontent and boredom that often threatened to overflow among the waiting troops was allayed by constant training and frequent ceremonial visits by Napoleon himself (including the first ever awards of the Imperial Légion d'honneur), which Louis-Philippe participated.Chandler, David G. The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. ISBN 0-02-523660-1, p323 A medal was struck and a triumphal column erected at Boulogne to celebrate the invasion's anticipated success. However, when Napoleon ordered a large-scale test of the invasion craft despite choppy weather and against the advice of his naval commanders such as Charles René Magon de Médine (commander of the flotilla's right wing), they were shown up as ill-designed for their task and, though Napoleon led rescue efforts in person, many men were lost. Wounded at Battle of Caldiero which he was wounded five times in both legs, stomach and arms.]] On October 30th, Lieutenant General Louis-Philippe, aged 18 commanded by Marshal André Masséna. Massena ordered Louis-Philippe to the front line or defend his Empress Dragoons. Louis-Philippe agreed as he attacked the Austrians with his Dragoons. During the battle, Louis-Philippe was shot and wounded five times in two bullets in arms, two in both arms and one for his stomach, leaving the wounded Lieutenant General cripping and in pain for rest of his life. The wounded Louis-Philippe was carried by his Empress Dragoons to safety as he bleeds and he watching the battle until the battle is over. The bullets that were shot Louis-Philippe was a Austrian rifles. With the victorious battle, the wounded and injuried Lieutenant General Louis-Philippe travelled home back to his birth home to recover his wounds. Battles of Austerlitz and Schöngrabern The main body of the Napoleonic French army followed the remains of the Austrian army towards Vienna. Following the failure of the Austrian army at Ulm, a Russian army under General Mikhail Kutuzov was also withdrawing east, and reached the Ill river on 22 October, where it joined with the retreating Corps Kienmayer. On 5 November, they held a successful rearguard action in Amstetten. On 7 November, the Russians arrived in St. Pölten, and then moved across the Danube river the next day. Late on 9 November, they destroyed the bridges across the Danube, holding the last one, at Stein, near Krems, until the late afternoon. Rainer Egger. Das Gefecht bei Dürnstein-Loiben 1805. Wien: Bundesverlag, 1986. The following day, Mortier ordered Gazan to attack what they believed to be a Russian rear guard, at the village of Stein. This was a trap on the part of Kutuzov, laid for the sole purpose of convincing Mortier that he had retreated further toward Vienna, when he had actually crossed the Danube in force, and lay concealed behind the ridges above the village. In the ensuing Battle of Dürenstein, three Russian columns circled around the First Division of the Corps Mortier, and attacked Gazan from both the front and the rear. Not until Dupont's division arrived, after dark, was Gazan able to start to evacuate his soldiers to the other side of the Danube. Gazan lost close to 40 percent of his division. In addition, 47 officers and 895 men were captured, and he lost five guns, as well as the eagles of the 4th Infantry Regiment, and the eagle and guidon of the 4th Dragoons. The Russians also lost around 4,000, about 16 percent of their force, and two regimental colors.Smith. Databook. p. 213. The Austrian Lt. Field Marshal Schmitt was killed as the battle concluded, probably by Russian musketry in the confused melee. Jens-Florian Ebert. "Heinrich von Schmitt". Die Österreichischen Generäle 1792–1815. Napoleon Online: Portal zu Epoch. Markus Stein, editor. Mannheim, Germany. 14 February 2010 version. Accessed 5 February 2010: Egger, p. 29. At the Battle of Schöngrabern (also known as the Battle of Hollabrunn) occurred a week after the battle at Duerenstein. On 16 November 1805. near Hollabrunn in Lower Austria. The Russian army of Kutuzov was retiring north of the Danube before the French army of Napoleon. On 13 November 1805 Marshals Murat and Lannes, commanding the French advance guard, had captured a bridge over the Danube at Vienna by falsely claiming that an armistice had been signed, and then rushing the bridge while the guards were distracted. Kutuzov needed to gain time in order to make contact near Brünn with reinforcements led by Buxhowden. He ordered his rearguard under Major-General Prince Pyotr Bagration to delay the French. After Hollabrun, the armies gathered on the plains to the east of Brno. Napoleon could muster some 75,000 men and 157 guns for the impending battle, but about 7,000 troops under Davout were still far to the south in the direction of Vienna.Uffindell p. 19. The Allies had about 73,000 soldiers, seventy percent of them Russian, and 318 guns. On 1 December, both sides occupied their main positions. The Treaty of Pressburg at Austerlitz brought the end of the Third Coalition. The War of the Fourth Coalition The death of William Pitt in January 1806, Britain and the new Whig administration remained committed to checking the growing power of France. Peace overtures between the two nations early in the new year proved ineffectual due to the still unresolved issues that had led to the breakdown of the Peace of Amiens. One point of contention was the fate of Hanover, a German electorate in personal union with the British monarchy that had been occupied by France since 1803. Dispute over this state would eventually become a casus belli for both Britain and Prussia against France. This issue also dragged Sweden into the war, whose forces had been deployed there as part of the effort to liberate Hanover during the war of the previous coalition. The path to war seemed inevitable after French forces ejected the Swedish troops in April 1806. Fifth Coalition In April 1809, Louis Antoine took command of a regiment of cavalry in the Bavarian army and took part in the battle of Hohenlinden against the French, showing some ability. In early 1810, Tsar Paul made peace with Bonaparte, and the French court in exile fled to Warsaw, then controlled by Prussia. For the next ten years, Louis-Antoine accompanied and advised his uncle, Louis XVIII. They returned to Russia when Alexander I became Tsar, but in mid-1807 the treaty between Napoleon and Alexander forced them to take refuge in England. There, at Hartwell House, King Louis reconstituted his court, and Louis-Antoine was granted an allowance of £300 a month. Twice (in 1807 and 1813) he attempted to return to Russia to join the fight against Napoleon, but was refused permission by the Tsar. He remained in England until 1814 when he sailed to Bordeaux, which had declared for the King. His entry into the city on 12 March 1814 was regarded as the beginning of the Bourbon restoration. From there, Louis Antoine fought alongside the Duke of Wellington to restore his cousin Ferdinand VII to the throne of Spain. In the 1812 War against Russia (which Napoleon referred to as his "Second Polish Campaign") he commanded a cavalry brigade in the 5th Corps of Count Józef Poniatowski. The Polish poet and playwright Aleksander Fredro, who served under him, recalled that while Sułkowski was courageous and honorable, he had trouble acquiring the full confidence of his men, partly because he tended to use infantry tactics (Sułkowski's previous command) when in charge of a cavalry unit. Sixth Coalition and Napoleon's abdicated (on horseback), in dragoon uniform at the battle of Valmy (1792).]] In the War of the Sixth Coalition he was a division general and led the 4th Cavalry Corps of Michał Sokolnicki. After the death of Poniatowski on 19 October 1813, Sułkowski was briefly the main commander of the Polish Corps, even though he was only twenty eight years old at the time. Sułkowski however, did not wish to fight outside of Poland again, and acting on behalf of his unit's sentiment, vowed that Polish troops would not cross the Rhine. After Napoleon made a personal appeal to Polish soldiers they became willing to follow the emperor which put Sułkowski in a difficult position; if he continued to lead his troops he would have to break the oath he made earlier.David R. Stefancic, Armies in Exile, East European Monographs, 2005, pg. 45 As a result, he submitted his resignation which was accepted by Napoleon and returned to Poland. The remaining Polish forces from then on were commanded by Jan Henryk Dąbrowski. On 1814, Napoleon was forced to abdicated after the Battle of Leipzig. Louis-Philippe was first retirement form April to September 1814, which he come back from the retirement. Bourbon Restoration : s during the Bourbon Restoration.]] After the abdication of Napoleon, Louis Philippe, known as Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, returned to France during the reign of his cousin Louis XVIII, at the time of the Bourbon Restoration. Louis Philippe had reconciled the Orléans family with Louis XVIII in exile, and was once more to be found in the elaborate royal court. However, his resentment at the treatment of his family, the cadet branch of the House of Bourbon under the Ancien Régime, caused friction between him and Louis XVIII, and he openly sided with the liberal opposition. Louis Philippe was on far friendlier terms with Louis XVIII's brother and successor, Charles X, who acceded to the throne in 1824, and with whom he socialized. However, his opposition to the policies of Villèle and later of Jules de Polignac caused him to be viewed as a constant threat to the stability of Charles' government. This soon proved to be to his advantage. Reign in Poland-Lithuania .]] Accession to the throne In beginning of January of 1815, Duke Frederick Augustus I of Saxony went forced to abdication following of Napoleon went to exile, and favor his son, Pavel or his brother, Charles. The throne went to Casimir's brother, he refused and remained Duke of Radzilow. The election of 1826-17 went May 3, which he be Candidate with support from his brother against Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria, George III of the United Kingdom, and Frederick Augustus I. The election was 11 months and 15 days. On April 18, Charles Philippe succeeded to the throne as Charles I. In foreign affairs Oscar I was a friend of the principle of nationality. In 1848 he supported Denmark against the Kingdom of Prussia in the First War of Schleswig; placed Swedish and Norwegian troops in cantonments in Funen and North Schleswig (1849–1850); and mediated the Truce of Malmö (26 August 1848). He was also one of the guarantors of the integrity of Denmark (the London Protocol, 8 May 1852). Role in international relations On 21 December 1804, a few weeks after Napoleon becomes Emperor on 2nd of December. The Polish Parliament asked James Casimir the office of "Holy Polish Emperor", when it was offered to him on the grounds that such a constitution and such an offer were an abridgment of the rights of the princes of the individual Polish states. Which the Polish people never had a polish monarch titled, the Holy Polish Emperor since Michael I the last monarch who hold the title. Even though that the King will or will not refused the title. On six days after deciding the title, King James Casimir rejected the title of Holy Polish Emperor, with the statement; "For the people of the Polish, I was asked for the office of the Holy Polish Emperor by the Parliament, after a week I deciding to reject the offer, because when I was crowned as "King of the Polish" on 1795. The title of Holy Polish Emperor is nice, but I decline the offer." Internal policy Forty Years' War and Polices After Louis, Grand Duke of Livonia retired as "Regent of Poland" on 1804. His younger brother wants Casimir to toke over Louis' place. The Crown Prince Casimir agreed, to protect, Regent and Heir to the Polish throne. In 1824 and 1833, the Crown Prince was briefly Viceroy of Norway. In 1838 the king began to suspect his son of plotting with the Liberal politicians to bring about a change of ministry, or even his own abdication. If Oscar did not actively assist the Opposition on this occasion, his disapprobation of his father's despotic behaviour was notorious, though he avoided an actual rupture. Yet his liberalism was of the most cautious and moderate character, as the Opposition, shortly after his accession (8 March 1844), discovered to their great chagrin. He would not hear of any radical reform of the cumbrous and obsolete Constitution of 1809. But one of his earliest measures was to establish freedom of the press. He also passed the first law towards gender equality in Sweden when he in 1845 declared that brothers and sisters should have equal inheritance, unless there was a will. On March of 1844, his brother, Charles died and favor Casimir, to the Swedish-Norwegian throne. But he wasn't Crown Prince to the Polish throne, as he nephew, Alexander Charles Radzilow took the title as Crown prince and Heir to the Polish throne, and he refused to be next in line to the throne. Casimir did not accept the Swedish-Norwegian throne until 15 July of same year, he accepted it as King of Sweden and Norway. right|thumb|[[Daguerreotype of Oscar I in 1844; this is the first known photograph of a Swedish monarch.]] He formally established equality between his two kingdoms by introducing new flags with the common Union badge of Norway and Sweden and a new coat of arms for the union. He also founded the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav on August 21, 1847, giving his Norwegian kingdom its own order of chivalry. Most of the legislation during Oscar I's reign aimed at improving the economic position of Sweden, and the Riksdag of the Estates, in its address to him in 1857, declared that he had promoted the material prosperity of the kingdom more than any of his predecessors. ch 40 pp 273-88 Relationship with Polish people War of the Ukrainian Succession : Causes and build-up to the war After the Forty Years' War, Ukraine was ruled by the Turchynov Hetman Ivan IV. Ivan was a natural opponent of Napoleon and was allied with the Third Coalition against him. However, after defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz and the Treaty of Pressburg, Ferdinand was forced to cede Naples to the French in early 1806. Initially, Napoleon’s brother Joseph Bonaparte ruled Naples. Then in 1808, Joseph was made King of Spain and Napoleon installed his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, as King of Naples. Murat originally ruled Naples following the same legal and social system used in France, whilst still participating in Napoleon's campaigns. But following the disastrous Battle of Leipzig, Murat abandoned La Grande Armée to try to save his throne. As defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition loomed, Murat increasingly moved away from Napoleon, eventually signing a treaty with Austria in January 1814 and joined the Allied side. But as the Congress of Vienna progressed, Murat's position became less and less secure as there was growing support to restore Ferdinand to the throne. The most vocal of all Murat's opponents was the United Kingdom, which had never recognised Murat's claim to the throne and moreover had been guarding Ferdinand in Sicily, ensuring he retained the Sicilian throne. When Murat was informed of Napoleon's plan to escape from exile in Elba on 1 March 1815, Murat sided with him once more, and declared war on Austria as soon as he learned of Napoleon's return to France. Austrian counterattack and Battle of Tolentino The Battle of Occhiobello proved to be the turning point of the war. Murat's attempts to cross the River Po proved unsuccessful and after two days of heavy fighting, the Neapolitans fell back after suffering over 2,000 casualties. To make matters worse, the United Kingdom and Kingdom of Poland declared war on Murat and sent a fleet over to Italy. Charles invades Italy beginning of the Hundred Days. Meanwhile, Frimont had ordered a counterattack to try to relieve the garrison in Ferrara. He ordered a corps under the command of Bianchi to advance on Carpi, which was guarded by a brigade under the command of Guglielmo Pepe. Another column was ordered to cut off Pepe's line of retreat. However, Carascosa, who was in command of the Neapolitan troops around Modena, saw the Austrian trap and ordered a retreat to a defensive line behind the Panaro where he was joined by the remainder of his division, which had been evacuated from Reggio Emilia and Modena. But even after Carascosa's retreat, Murat was still in a position to continue the siege at Ferrara. In response, Frimont ordered a corps under the command of General Neipperg to attack his entrenched right flank. On 12 April, after bitter fighting at the Battle of Casaglia, the Neapolitan troops were driven from their entrenched positions. Murat was forced to lift the Siege of Ferrara and retreated back on the road to Bologna. On 14 April, Frimont attempted to force a crossing of the Panaro, but was repelled. However, only two days later, Murat and his army retreated from Bologna, which was quickly retaken by the Austrians. In Tuscany meanwhile, Murat's two Guard Divisions also inexplicably retreated without being harassed in any way by Nugent. By 15 April, the Austrians had retaken Florence and when the news reached Murat, he ordered a general retreat of his main force back to their original headquarters in Ancona. With the road to Florence now clear and the Italian peninsula opening up in front of him, Frimont ordered two corps south to deal with Murat once and for all. Bianchi's corps was ordered to march towards Foligno via Florence in an attempt to threaten the rear of the Neapolitans and to cut off their line of direct retreat, whilst Neipperg's corps was sent into direct pursuit of Murat as he retired to Ancona. ith the war turning in Austria's favour, Frimont was ordered back to Lombardy to oversee the army that was now amassing in preparation for an invasion of France. A large portion of the Austrian force was also recalled, leaving only three Austrian corps totalling around 35,000 men in Italy. Murat, who placed too much faith in his Guard Divisions and believing they would be able to halt the advance of Bianchi and Nugent, retreated slowly, even turning to check the pursuit at the Ronco and Savio rivers. But the Austrian advanced guard caught the retreating Neapolitan force twice by surprise at Cesenatico and Pesaro. Murat hurried his retreat and by late April, his main force had arrived safely in Ancona, where he was reunited with his two Guard Divisions. Meanwhile, Bianchi's corps had made swift progress. Arriving in Florence on 20 April, they had reached their target of Foligno by 26 April and now threatened Murat's line of retreat. Neipperg's corps was still in pursuit and by 29 April, his advanced guard had arrived in Fano, just two days' march away. However, the two Austrian armies were separated and Murat hoped to quickly defeat Bianchi before turning on Neipperg. Much like Napoleon's tactics before Waterloo, Murat sent a division under Carascosa north to stall Neipperg whilst his main force headed west to face Bianchi. Murat originally planned to face Bianchi near the town of Tolentino, but on 29 April, Bianchi's advanced guard succeeded in driving out the small Neapolitan garrison there. Bianchi, having arrived first, then formed a defensive position around the hills to the east of Tolentino. With Neipperg's army approaching to his rear, Murat was forced to give battle at Tolentino on 2 May 1815. After two days of inconclusive fighting, Murat learned that Neipperg had outmanoeuvred and defeated Carascosa at the Battle of Scapezzano and was approaching. Sensing the inevitable, Murat ordered a retreat. The battle had severely damaged the morale of the Neapolitan troops and many senior officers had been casualties in the battle. The battered Neapolitan army fell back in disarray. On 5 May, a joint Anglo-Austrian fleet began a blockade of Ancona, eventually taking the entire garrison of the city as prisoners. By 12 May, Bianchi, who was now in command of both his and Neipperg's corps, had taken the town of L'Aquila along with its castle. The main Austrian army was now marching on Popoli. During this time, General Nugent had continued to advance from Florence. Having arrived in Rome on 30 April, allowing the Pope to return, Nugent advanced towards Ceprano. By mid May, Nugent had intercepted Murat at San Germano (now Cassino). Here, Murat attempted to check Nugent's advance but with the main Austrian force under Bianchi in pursuit, Murat was forced to call off the action on 16 May. Soon afterwards, the Austrian armies united near Calvi and began the march on Naples. Murat was forced to flee to Corsica and later Cannes disguised as a sailor on a Danish ship, after a British fleet blockading Naples destroyed all the Neapolitan gunboats in the harbour. Acceptance of the will of Ivan IV and consequences On his deathbed in 1834, Ivan IV unexpectedly changed his will. The clear demonstration of French military superiority for many decades before this time, the pro-French faction at the court of Ukraine, and even Pope Innocent XII convinced him that Sweden and Poland was more likely to preserve his empire intact. He thus offered the entire empire to the Ivan's second son Pedro, Duke of Right-bank of Ukraine, provided it remained undivided. Anjou was not in the direct line of French succession, thus his accession would not cause a Franco-Spanish union. If Pedro refused, the throne would be offered to Casimir. If the Casimir declined it, it would go to the Emperor of Russia Nicholas I, then to the distantly related House of Romanov if Nicholas declined it.Kamen, Henry. (2001) Philip V of Spain: The King who Reigned Twice, Yale University Press, p. 6. ISBN 0-300-08718-7. On 20 May, Neapolitan Generals Pepe and Carascosa sued for peace and concluded the Treaty of Casalanza with the Austrians, bringing the war to an end. On 23 May, the main Austrian army entered Naples and restored King Ferdinand to the Neapolitan throne. Murat, meanwhile, would attempt to reclaim his kingdom. Coming back from exile, he landed with 28 men at Pizzo, Calabria on 8 October 1815. However, unlike Napoleon months earlier, Murat was not greeted with a warm welcome and was soon captured by Bourbon troops. Five days after he landed at Pizzo, he was executed in the town's castle, exhorting the firing squad to spare his face. This ended the final chapter of the Napoleonic Wars. After Napoleon exiled after the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the Seventh Coalition allies realized that Charles I will be a took control of all Italy, but the King refused, but he recognizes his son, William, Duke of Lodz become Philip I of Italy on 20 May, which the Allies accepted. Shortly after the end of the war, the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were finally united to create the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Although the two kingdoms had been ruled by the same king since 1735, the formal union did not happen until 1816. King Philip I would become King Philip I of the Two Sicilies. Meanwhile, the Austrians consolidated their gains in Northern Italy into the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. Although Murat failed to save his crown, or to start a popular nationalist movement with the Rimini Proclamation, Murat had ignited a debate for Italian unification. Indeed, some consider the Rimini Proclamation as the start of Risorgimento. The intervention of Austria only heightened the fact the Habsburgs were the single most powerful opponent to unification, which would eventually lead to three wars of independence against the Austrians. Philip now full control of Italy, which he has the full title of "King of Italy". Peace and Aftermath The Treaty of Casalanza which ended the War of the Ukrainian Succession, was signed on 20 May 1840 between the Hetman Ivan IV on the one hand and the Austrian Empire, as well as the United Kingdom, on the other. Following the decisive defeat at the Battle of Tolentino and the Battle of San Germano, the Napoleonic King of Naples, Joachim Murat, had fled to Corsica and General Michele Carascosa, who was now the head of the Neapolitan army following Murat's flight, sued for peace. The treaty was signed by Pietro Colletta (who was acting as plenipotentiary to Michele Carascosa), Adam Albert von Neipperg (who was acting as plenipotentiary to the commander-in-chief of the Austrian forces, Frederick Bianchi), and Lord Burghersh (the English minister plenipotentiary in Florence). The terms of the treaty were quite lenient on the defeated Neapolitans. All the Neapolitan generals were allowed to keep their rank and the borders of the Kingdom of Naples remained unchanged. The treaty merely called for the return of the pre-Napoleonic King Ferdinand IV of Naples and Sicily to the Neapolitan throne, the return of all prisoners of war and for all the Neapolitan garrisons to lay down their arms, with the exception of Ancona, Pescara and Gaeta. These three cities were all being blockaded by an Anglo-Austrian fleet and were out of General Carascosa's control. These three garrisons eventually surrendered, although the Siege of Gaeta would last till August, long after Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. Social policy and reforms From the beginning of his reign Napoleon III launched a series of social reforms aimed at improving the life of the working class. He began with small projects, such as opening up two clinics in Paris for sick and injured workers, a program of legal assistance to those unable to afford it, and subsidies to companies which built low-cost housing for their workers. He outlawed the practice of employers taking possession of or making comments in the work document that every employee was required to carry; negative comments meant that workers were unable to get other jobs. In 1866, he encouraged the creation of a state insurance fund to help workers or peasants who became disabled, and to help their widows and families.Séguin, 1990, p. 314 To help the working class, Napoleon III offered a prize to anyone who could develop an inexpensive substitute for butter; the prize was won by the French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès, who in 1869 patented a product he named oleomargarine, later shortened to simply margarine.Séguin, 1990,p. 313 Later reign Rebuilding Poland He formally established equality between his two kingdoms by introducing new flags with the common Union badge of Norway and Sweden and a new coat of arms for the union. He also founded the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav on August 21, 1847, giving his Norwegian kingdom its own order of chivalry. Most of the legislation during Oscar I's reign aimed at improving the economic position of Sweden, and the Riksdag of the Estates, in its address to him in 1857, declared that he had promoted the material prosperity of the kingdom more than any of his predecessors. ch 40 pp 273-88 In foreign affairs Oscar I was a friend of the principle of nationality. In 1848 he supported Denmark against the Kingdom of Prussia in the First War of Schleswig; placed Swedish and Norwegian troops in cantonments in Funen and North Schleswig (1849–1850); and mediated the Truce of Malmö (26 August 1848). He was also one of the guarantors of the integrity of Denmark (the London Protocol, 8 May 1852). As early as 1850 Oscar I had conceived the plan of a dynastic union of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, but such difficulties presented themselves that the scheme had to be abandoned.Lars O. Lagerqvist in Sverige och dess regenter under 1000 år (Sweden and Her Rulers for 1000 years) ISBN 91-0-075007-7 pp. 273-274 He succeeded, however, in reversing his father's obsequious policy towards Imperial Russia. His fear lest Russia should demand a stretch of coast along the Varanger Fjord induced him to remain neutral during the Crimean War, and, subsequently, to conclude an alliance with Great Britain and the Second French Empire (25 November 1855) for preserving the territorial integrity of Sweden-Norway. Declining health Illness and death Titles, styles and arms Titles and styles *'24 August 1782 – 7 January 1815:' His Royal Highness Charles Philippe, The Duke of Angoulême *'19 February 1817 – 17 July 1854:' His Imperial Majesty Charles I, Holy Polish Emperor and Grand Duke of Lithuania Arms Legacy On 13 May 1935, in accordance with Piłsudski's last wishes, Edward Rydz-Śmigły was named by Poland's president and government to be Inspector-General of the Polish Armed Forces, and on 10 November 1936, he was elevated to Marshal of Poland. Rydz was now one of the most powerful people in Poland, the "second man in the state after the President". While many saw Rydz-Śmigły as a successor to Piłsudski, he never became as influential. As the Polish government became increasingly authoritarian and conservative, the Rydz-Śmigły faction was opposed by that of the more moderate Ignacy Mościcki, who remained President. After 1938 Rydz-Śmigły reconciled with the President, but the ruling group remained divided into the "President's Men", mostly civilians (the "Castle Group", after the President's official residence, Warsaw's Royal Castle), and the "Marshal's Men" ("Piłsudski's Colonels"), professional military officers and old comrades-in-arms of Piłsudski's. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, some of this political division would survive within the Polish government in exile. on Warsaw's Piłsudski Square—one of many statuary tributes throughout Poland]] Piłsudski had given Poland something akin to what Henryk Sienkiewicz's Onufry Zagłoba had mused about: a Polish Oliver Cromwell. As such, the Marshal had inevitably drawn both intense loyalty and intense vilification. In 1935, at Piłsudski's funeral, President Mościcki eulogized the Marshal: "He was the king of our hearts and the sovereign of our will. During a half-century of his life's travails, he captured heart after heart, soul after soul, until he had drawn the whole of Poland within the purple of his royal spirit ... He gave Poland freedom, boundaries, power and respect."Translation of Mościcki's speech from 1935. For Polish original online, see After World War II, little of Piłsudski's thought influenced the policies of the Polish People's Republic, a de facto satellite of the Soviet Union. In particular, Poland was in no position to resume Piłsudski's effort to build an ''Intermarum'' federation of Poland and some of its neighbors; and a "Promethean" endeavor to "break up the Russian state into its main constituents and emancipate the countries that have been forcibly incorporated into that empire."Quoted in Charaszkiewicz 2000, p. 56. For a decade after World War II, Piłsudski was either ignored or condemned by Poland's communist government, along with the entire interwar Second Polish Republic. This began to change, however, particularly after de-Stalinization and the Polish October (1956), and historiography in Poland gradually moved away from a purely negative view of Piłsudski toward a more balanced and neutral assessment. After the fall of communism and the 1991 disintegration of the Soviet Union, Piłsudski once again came to be publicly acknowledged as a Polish national hero. On the sixtieth anniversary of his death, on 12 May 1995, Poland's Sejm adopted a resolution: "Józef Piłsudski will remain, in our nation's memory, the founder of its independence and the victorious leader who fended off a foreign assault that threatened the whole of Europe and its civilization. Józef Piłsudski served his country well and has entered our history forever." While some of Piłsudski's political moves remain controversial — particularly the May 1926 Coup d'état, the Brest trials (1931–32), the 1934 establishment of the Bereza Kartuska detention camp, and successive Polish governments' failure to formulate consistent, constructive policies toward the national minoritiesCharaszkiewicz 2000, pp. 66–67. — Piłsudski continues to be viewed by most Poles as a providential figure in the country's 20th-century history. of Józef Piłsudski by Jerzy Szwajcer]] Piłsudski has lent his name to several military units, including the 1st Legions Infantry Division and armored train No. 51 ("I Marszałek"—"the First Marshal"). Also named for Piłsudski have been Piłsudski's Mound, one of four man-made mounds in Kraków; the Józef Piłsudski Institute of America, a New York City research center and museum on the modern history of Poland; the Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw; a passenger ship, ; a gunboat, ; and a racehorse, Pilsudski. Virtually every Polish city has its "Piłsudski Street". (There are, by contrast, few if any streets named after Piłsudski's National-Democrat arch-rival, Roman Dmowski, even in Dmowski's old Greater-Poland political stronghold). There are statues of Piłsudski in many Polish cities; the highest density of such statuary memorials is found in Warsaw, which has three in little more than a mile between the Belweder Palace, Piłsudski's residence, and Piłsudski Square. He was the subject of paintings by renowned artists such as Jacek Malczewski (1916) and Wojciech Kossak (leaning on his sword, 1928; and astride his horse, Kasztanka, 1928), as well as of numerous caricatures and photos. Piłsudski has been a character in numerous works of fiction, such as the 1922 novel Generał Barcz (General Barcz) by Juliusz Kaden-Bandrowski and the 2007 novel Ice (Lód) by Jacek Dukaj. Poland's National Library lists over 500 publications related to Piłsudski; the U.S. Library of Congress, over 300. Piłsudski's life was the subject of a 2001 Polish television documentary, Marszałek Piłsudski, directed by Andrzej Trzos-Rastawiecki. Plans are being considered to turn Piłsudski's official residence, the Belweder Palace, which currently houses a small exhibit about him, into a full-fledged museum devoted to his memory. .]] Ancestry Honors Poland * Order of the White Eagle (1921) * Order of Virtuti Militari, classes I, II, and V * Cross of Independence with Swords (6 November 1930) * Order of Polonia Restituta, Class I and II * Cross of Valour (four times) * Gold Cross of Merit (Poland) (four times, including in 1931) * Merit Forces Central Lithuania * Cross on Silesian Ribbon of Merit and valor * Mark officers "Parasol" (1912) * Badge "for faithful service" (1916) * Scouting Cross (1920) * "Gold trade union" Chief Fire Brigades Union 78 * Cross Kaniowski (1929) 79 * Badge "Józef Piłsudski Polish Legion Commander" (1916) 80 * Commemorative Badge of former prisoners from the years 1914–1921 Ideological (1928) 81 Foreign * Order of the Blue Mantle (Afghanistan) * Order of the Iron Crown, Class III (Austria-Hungary) * Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold (Belgium) * Order of Saint Alexander with sword (Bulgaria) * Order of the Southern Cross Class I (Brazil) * Czechoslovak War Cross 1918 * Order of the Cross of the Eagle, Class I (Estonia, 1930) * Cross of Liberty, class I (grades I and III) (Estonia, 1922 and 1925) * Order of the White Rose of Finland, Class I * Grand Croix of the Legion of Honour, No. 25864 (continuous numbering) and the Médaille militaire (France) * Order of Military Merit (Spain) * Order of the Rising Sun, Class I (Japan) * Order of the Karađorđe's Star (Yugoslavia) * Order of Lāčplēsis, Class I (Latvia) * Sovereign Military Order of St. John of Jerusalem, Class IV * Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword – Portugal * Order of Carol I, class I and the Order of Michael the Brave, Classes I, II and III (Romania) * Grand Cross of Merit (Hungary) 100 * Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus, Class I of Military Order of Savoy, First Class (Italy) Honorary doctorates * Jagiellonian University (28 April 1920) 102 * Adam Mickiewicz University (11 November 1933) * University of Warsaw (2 May 1921) 103 * Stefan Batory University in Vilnius (September 1921) See also * Intermarium (Międzymorze) * Józef Piłsudski's cult of personality * List of people on the cover of Time Magazine: 1920s – 7 June 1926 * List of Poles * Piłsudski family * Piłsudskiite (Piłsudczyk) * Poles * Prometheism Citations Hyde-Price 2001, p. 75. Alabrudzińska 1999, p. 99. Roshwald 2001, p. 36. [[#refBoemeke1998|Boemeke et al. 1998]], p. 314. Biskupski 2000. Charaszkiewicz 2000, pp. 56–87. Cisek 2002, pp. 140–141. Cohen 1980, p. 101. Cohen 1989, p. 65. Davies 2005, p. 40. Davies 1998, p. 935. Davies 1982, p. 399). Davies 1982, p. 407. Davies 2003. Davies 2005. Davies 1997, pp. 99–103. Davies 1997, p. 229. Davies 2003, p. 197. Erickson 2001, p. 95. Quester 2000, p. 27. The author gives a source: Watt 1979. Garlicki 1995, p. 178. Garlicki 1995, p. 63. Goldfarb 1992, p. 152. Goldstein 2002, p. 29. Lerski 1996, p. 449. Lerski 1996, p. 441. Hildebrand 1973, p. 33. Prizel 1998, p. 71. Lukacs 2001, p. 30. Rothschild 1990, p. 45. Jabłonowski and Stawecki 1998, p. 13. Jabłonowski and Stawecki 1998, p. 14. Jabłonowski and Stawecki 1998, p. 5. Jędrzejewicz 1994, p. 13. Kenez 1999, p. 37. See Lenin's speech, English translation quoted from Pipes 1993, pp. 181–182, with some stylistic modification in paragraph 3, line 3, by Anna M. Cienciala. This document was first published in a Russian historical periodical, , and is cited through lecture notes by Cienciala 2002. MacMillan 2003, p. 208. MacMillan 2003, p. 209. MacMillan 2003, p. 210. MacMillan 2003, pp. 211 and 214. MacMillan 2003, p. 211. MacMillan 2003, pp. 213–214. Jordan 2002, p. 23. [[#refLonnroth1994|Lönnroth, et al. 1994]], p. 230. Pidlutskyi 2004. Plach 2006, p. 14. Pobóg-Malinowski 1990, p. 7. Drozdowski and Szwankowska 1995, p. 5. Drozdowski and Szwankowska 1995, p. 6. Drozdowski and Szwankowska 1995, pp. 9–11. Roos 1966, p. 14. Roshwald 2002, p. 60. Sanford 2002, pp. 5–6. Translation of Oświadczenie Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 12 maja 1995 r. w sprawie uczczenia 60 rocznicy śmierci Marszałka Józefa Piłsudskiego. (M.P. z dnia 24 maja 1995 r.). For Polish original online, see here http://www.bankier.pl/firma/narzedzia/akty-prawne/monitor-polski-1995/pozycja-0297.html. Snyder 2004, p. 144. Suleja 2004, p. 202. Suleja 2004, p. 265. Suleja 2004, p. 300. Suleja 2004, p. 343. Torbus 1999, p. 25. See articles 87–93, Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 109–111. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 113–116. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 117–18. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 121–122. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 13–15. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 131. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 133–141. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 168. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 170–171 and 180–182. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 171–172. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 174–175. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 178–179. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 251–252. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 253. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 256 and pp. 277–278. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 281. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 291. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 2, pp. 317–326. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 2, pp. 330–337. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 341–346 and 357–358. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 341–46. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 346–441 and 357–358. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 2, p. 45. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 484. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 485. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 487–488. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 488. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 489. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 489–490. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 490. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 490–491. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 499–501. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 50. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 502. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, 515. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 528–529. Urbankowski 1997, p. 538. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 539–540. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 62–66. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 68–69. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1 p. 71. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 74–77. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 2, p. 83. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 88. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 2, p. 90. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 2, p. 92. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 93. Zamoyski 1987, p. 330. Zamoyski 1987, p. 332. Zamoyski 1987, p. 333. Joshua D. Zimmerman, Poles, Jews, and the Politics of Nationality: The Bund and the Polish Socialist Party in Late Tsarist Russia, 1892–1914, University of Wisconsin Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-299-19464-2 p.166 Joshua D. Zimmerman, Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath, Rutgers University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-8135-3158-8, p.19 Władyka 2005, pp. 285–311; Żuławnik 2005. }} References * * * * * * Cienciala, Anna M. "The Foreign Policy of Józef Pi£sudski and Józef Beck, 1926–1939: Misconceptions and Interpretations," The Polish Review (2011) 56#1 pp. 111–151 in JSTOR * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (Reprinted in Zerkalo Nedeli (The Mirror Weekly), Kiev, 3–9 February February 2001, in Russian and in Ukrainian.) * * * * * * * (Translated by J.R. Foster from the German Geschichte der polnischen Nation, 1916–1960.) * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading :This is only a small selection. See also National Library in Warsaw lists. * * * * * * * * * * * * * Wandycz, Piotr S. "Poland's Place in Europe in the Concepts of Piłsudski and Dmowski," East European Politics & Societies (1990) 4#3 pp 451–468. * External links * A site dedicated to Józef Piłsudski and the prewar Poland * Dole, Patryk, * Józef Piłsudski Institute of America / * [http://monika.univ.gda.pl/~literat/bibula/index.htm Bibuła] – Book by Józef Piłsudski * Historical media – Recording of short speech by Piłsudski from 1924 Category:Charles I, Holy Polish Emperor Category:1782 births Category:1854 deaths Category:Holy Polish Emperor Category:Grand Dukes of Lithuania Category:Dragoons (France) Category:Polish monarchs Category:Polish Roman Catholics Category:Roman Catholic monarchs